Balancing Subjective and Empirical Ways of Knowing: From Myth to Modernity

Human beings have always sought to make sense of the world, but the frameworks we use to do so have shifted dramatically over time. Archaeological and anthropological evidence suggests that Neolithic societies primarily understood their environment subjectively — through lived experience, story, and myth. The cave paintings at Lascaux or the ritual structures at Göbekli Tepe, for example, are not empirical maps of the world but symbolic narratives encoding meaning, spirituality, and cosmology (Lewis-Williams, 2002; Hodder, 2018). These subjective frameworks were not primitive errors. They were the only possible epistemologies in societies without formalized mathematics or written science, and they served vital social purposes: transmitting cultural memory, strengthening group bonds, and providing existential orientation.

As societies became more complex and larger in scale, these frameworks were supplemented by increasingly empirical forms of knowledge. Ancient Mesopotamians used base-60 mathematics to track celestial movements, enabling the creation of calendars (Friberg, 2007). Egyptian engineers mastered geometry to build monumental architecture. Pythagoras and later Greek philosophers introduced abstract mathematical reasoning, while Roman engineering brought applied science into everyday infrastructure — aqueducts, concrete, and roads. Empirical advances also flourished outside Europe: Mayan astronomers charted planetary cycles with remarkable precision, and medieval Islamic scholars made foundational contributions in algebra, optics, and astronomy (Saliba, 2007).

The trajectory was not linear, but by the early modern period, the balance of subjective and empirical ways of knowing began to tilt decisively. The scientific revolution of the seventeenth century — symbolized by figures such as Galileo, Newton, and Bacon — prioritized observation, experiment, and quantification. This epistemological turn was revolutionary not only in method but also in worldview: it insisted that reality could be described through universal laws independent of myth or cultural narrative. The Industrial Revolution, centuries later, amplified this approach by harnessing empirical science for technological power, extending human lifespans, reducing child mortality, eliminating diseases like polio, and connecting the globe through modern communication and transport.

The benefits of this empirical shift are undeniable. Yet its costs are also significant. Hierarchical social structures, environmental degradation, and the capacity for mechanized warfare emerged alongside industrial progress. More subtly, a sense of subjective meaning — once woven into daily rituals, myths, and shared lifeways — has attenuated in modern societies. The rise of mental health crises and the “loneliness epidemic” in the 21st century suggest that purely empirical progress does not guarantee psychological or social flourishing (Murthy, 2023).

Here is where integration becomes necessary. Empirical evidence shows that traditional lifeways contained elements beneficial to human well-being: a strong sense of community, embedded spirituality, and intimate connection with nature. Contemporary psychological research confirms that nature connectedness improves mental health outcomes (Mayer et al., 2009; Pritchard et al., 2020), and that belonging to cohesive communities reduces risks of depression and anxiety (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015). Spirituality, broadly defined, is likewise correlated with resilience and meaning-making (Pargament, 1997). These elements are subjective, experiential, and not reducible to equations — yet they are demonstrably impactful.

Modern culture itself reflects awareness of this imbalance. In the 18th and 19th centuries, futurism and speculative fiction were characterized by optimism: societies envisioned a world of technological abundance, symbolized by dreams of flying cars and domestic robots, immortalized in The Jetsons or even the hoverboards of Back to the Future. Today, however, cultural narratives lean heavily toward cynicism. Satirical programs such as Last Week Tonight with John Oliver regularly framed entire years of the late 2010s as disasters, underscoring a broader cultural mood of pessimism. Even Marvel, the world’s highest-grossing film franchise (over $29 billion globally; Box Office Mojo, 2023), has incorporated storylines centered on depression, suicide ideation, and trauma, as in the upcoming Thunderbolts.

This shift reflects more than pop culture fashion: it indicates collective experience. Internet culture, in particular, amplifies negative narratives. Research has shown that online discourse tends toward negativity, outrage, and cynicism, due to both algorithmic amplification and psychological biases toward negative stimuli (Brady et al., 2021; Chou et al., 2020). While online culture is often dismissed as ephemeral, it is in fact a powerful medium of cultural exchange, reflecting and reinforcing broader social moods.

The methodological point here is that both empirical and subjective approaches are indispensable. Empirical science gives us the ability to measure loneliness rates, quantify climate change, and trace epidemiological data. Subjective cultural analysis, by contrast, reveals how people experience these realities — through myths of decline, satirical comedy, or cinematic narratives of despair. Neither lens alone suffices. A comprehensive understanding requires the balance: empirical rigor to assess material realities, and subjective interpretation to grasp lived meaning.

At the same time, it is crucial not to romanticize traditional lifeways. Alongside community and nature connection, many also included exclusionary practices, systemic inequalities, and even human sacrifice. The task today is not to return to the Neolithic, but to selectively reintegrate the beneficial elements of subjective frameworks — spirituality, communal bonds, narratives of hope — within an empirically grounded, technologically advanced world.

In other words: we must hold onto the empirical without abandoning the subjective. To do otherwise is to risk producing a society technically sophisticated but existentially impoverished.

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